Social sciences explore societies and the interactions among individuals within them.
The social sciences encompass disciplines that study human behavior, societies, and institutions. The roots of social science trace back to ancient civilizations, although they gained prominence during the Enlightenment era of the late 17th century.
Key milestones in the development of the field include the emergence of sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science.
Auguste Comte, a French philosopher born in 1798, is often considered the father of sociology. He revolutionized the field by coining the term sociology, emphasizing its scientific foundation. He proposed a three-stage development of society and advocated for objective, scientific principles to advance the understanding of social phenomena. His work laid the groundwork for studying human behavior and societal dynamics.
Franz Boas, a German-born American anthropologist, founded the relativistic, culture-centered school of American anthropology, emphasizing cultural context over biological determinism. His influence shifted anthropological thinking, highlighting historical events and cultural constructs rather than fixed racial differences. His work laid the groundwork for modern concepts of culture, shaping the field for future generations.
Adam Smith was an 18th-century Scottish social philosopher and political economist best known for his work, "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations," published in 1776. This influential work laid the foundation for classical economics and introduced concepts such as the division of labor, the invisible hand, and the importance of free markets. Beyond economics, Smith made notable contributions to philosophy and psychology.
Niccolò Machiavelli was an Italian Renaissance political philosopher and statesman who is best known for his work, "The Prince," which challenged conventional ideas on ethics and government, emphasizing political realism. His separation of politics from ethics and his focus on practical strategies have shaped political thought for generations.
Social science employs quantitative, qualitative, comparative-historical, and social-historical methodologies.
Quantitative methods use data and statistical analysis to explore patterns and relationships, while qualitative methods focus on understanding social phenomena through interviews, observations, and textual analysis. Comparative-historical methods examine historical contexts to explain social change and variation, and the social-historical method integrates social and cultural contexts with traditional historical research.
Social theories serve as lenses for understanding the social world. For example, structural functionalism views social institutions and norms as working together to maintain societal stability, while conflict theory emphasizes power struggles and social inequality. Symbolic interactionism analyzes how individuals create meaning through interactions, critical theory critiques power structures and seeks social transformation, and feminist theory focuses on gender and challenges patriarchy. Postcolonial theory examines colonial legacies and power dynamics, while social constructionalism explores how social realities are constructed.
The social sciences bridge theory and application, addressing complex human interactions. In comparison, the formal sciences address abstract systems, such as mathematics and logic, while the natural sciences study natural phenomena, and the applied sciences are a practical application of scientific knowledge, like engineering and medicine.
The social sciences often receive less funding than the natural sciences for several reasons. While the natural sciences offer tangible technological advancements, the social sciences focus on intangibles like understanding behavior. Social phenomena involve intricate variables, making research costly and time-consuming, and quantifying social outcomes is more challenging than measuring physical phenomena. Governments prioritize fields with immediate economic impact, and the social sciences span multiple disciplines, complicating funding allocations.
The branches of social science include anthropology, business studies, economics, cognitive sciences, cultural studies, developmental studies, education, environmental studies, gender and sexuality studies, geography, history, industrial relations, information science, international studies, law, legal management, library science, linguistics, management, media studies, political studies, psychology, religious studies, science and technology studies, social work, sociology, sustainable development, and sustainability studies, along with several sub-branches.
The social sciences are the focus of this portion of our web guide.
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Recommended Resources
Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung
FQS, or Forum Qualitative Social Research, is a peer-reviewed multilingual online journal for qualitative research. Issues are published three times a year, and selected single contributions and contributions to the journal's regular features (FQS Reviews, FQS Debates, FQS Conferences, and FQS Interviews) are part of each issue. Additionally, thematic issues are published per prior agreement with the FQS editors. FQS is an open-access journal published under a Creative Commons Attribution.
https://www.qualitative-research.net/
Journal of Social Science Education
The JSSE is an international, peer-reviewed, open-access journal that publishes high-quality articles on teaching and learning in the interdisciplinary field of social science education. Published since 2002, the JSSE is a quarterly journal with thematic issues, and runs a permanent open call. Articles are published as Advance Access when they have successfully passed the review process, and a final version is available. Its indexation, sponsors, and editorial team are featured.
https://www.jsse.org/index.php/jsse
LibreTexts: Social Sciences Library
The Living Library is a hub of the LibreTexts Project, a multi-institutional collaborative venture to develop the next generation of open-access texts to improve postsecondary education at all levels of higher learning. The Social Sciences Library brings together contributions from multiple institutions to enhance postsecondary education, covering topics such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, and other social sciences. It is a free platform powered by H5P technology.
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/
The articles in the Social Science Library have been drawn mainly from the published work of exemplary academic social scientists. Researchers at the Global Development and Environment Institute selected materials for the collection, using a set of criteria listed here and an introduction to its founders and contributors. Included topics are sorted by discipline, although special collections are highlighted separately. A newsletter and contact information are included.
https://socialsciencelibrary.org/
Social Science Research Council
The SSRC is a US-based, independent, international non-profit organization formed to advance research in the social sciences and related disciplines. Established in 1923, the organization is headquartered in Brooklyn Heights, New York, with regional offices in other parts of the world. Its work, research, initiatives, and its global network are set forth, along with a schedule of events, and information about its Inter-American Foundation Research Fellowship Program.
https://www.ssrc.org/
Social Science Research Network
SSRN is a platform that facilitates disseminating academic research in the social sciences. Its primary purpose is to provide a platform for researchers to share their working papers, preprints, and published articles across various disciplines. By allowing scholars to share their research findings and receive feedback from peers, SSRN fosters collaboration and networking among scholars. SSRN also promotes open access to scholarly content, making research accessible to a global audience.
https://www.ssrn.com/
Launched by SAGE in 2011, Social Science Space is part of a series of activities and events that recognize and help strengthen the contributions made by the social sciences to our understanding of society, individuals, groups, and cultures. The project welcomes partnerships with other organizations and individual contributors. Partner benefits are stated on the website, along with a calendar of events, its standards, and policies on corrections. Topics are categorized by topic.
https://www.socialsciencespace.com/
The site offers free resources for students and researchers working with statistics in the social sciences. The calculators and tools featured on the site have been designed for ease of use and clarity of presentation. Their output has been audited for accuracy against the output produced by a number of established statistics packages. Tutorials, quizzes, an online store with branded apparel, and information on which statistics test to use, are included, along with a contact form.
https://www.socscistatistics.com/
