The Monacan people are the focus of this part of our web guide to American Indians.
While the Monacan Indian Nation was first recognized by the Commonwealth of Virginia in 1989 and by the federal government in 2017, they've been around a lot longer than that.
When the Jamestown settlers explored the James River in 1607, they found that the James River Monacan, along with their allies, the Mannahoac, controlled the area of the Piedmont between the Fall Line and the Blue Ridge Mountains. The Monacans were fierce competitors of the Powhatan Confederacy, a group of thirty tribes controlling much of the Tidewater and coastal plain. At the same time, the Monacans mined copper, which they traded with the Powhatans.
While the Powhatans and other local tribes traded with the European colonists, the Monacans relocated away from the European colonies, but the Europeans kept coming. In 1624, John Smith mapped out a portion of the Monacan territory, depicting five major settlements: Monahassanugh, Rassawek, Mowhemencho, Monassukapanough, and Massinacack.
In 1680, the Monacans signed the Treaty of Middle Plantation, which made the Monacans and other signatories tributaries to the English. In exchange, the English agreed not to come within three miles of the Indian settlements. Virginian colonists did not uphold their part of the agreement, while the Monacans continue to pay tribute to the Virginia governor.
Unable to avoid contact with the English, they traded soapstone, copper, and mica to the neighboring tribes as well as the English. Soon, English trading posts and forts were erected along the fall line in Virginia's interior.
Not all Monacans were comfortable with these new relationships with the Virginia colonists, however. Many Monacans moved further away from the plantations, some joining allied tribes in the Virginia Piedmont. As the strength of the colonists grew, Virginia lawmakers imposed tighter controls on the Indians in their sphere of influence. By the early 1720s, Indians were not allowed to vote, own firearms, testify as witnesses in a trial, or serve in the militia. While the Monacans viewed themselves as an independent nation, Virginia classified them with mixed-race and free African-Americans, as people without rights.
The situation didn't improve after the American Revolution, in which many Monacans were allied with the British against the colonists. In 1830, the United States passed the Indian Removal Acts, which called for the removal of American Indians from their homelands, which were sold to American settlers, while establishing reservations and missionary schools designed to acclimate Indian children to white culture.
Following the American Civil War, Virginia's government didn't recognize "Indian" as an identity. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, several Monacans left their homelands to settle in cities, while others remained in the Blue Ridge Mountains, on their historical lands. Smaller bands are believed to have moved south to North Carolina. For a time, the tribe ceased to exist as a cohesive entity, as Monacans were regarded as "people of color" rather than Monacans.
In the 1980s, Peter Houck published Indian Island in Amherst County, which speculated that the free people of color in the region during the antebellum era were descendants of the Monacan tribe. Prior to the publishing of this book, most of those who claimed American Indian ancestry identified as Cherokee since they were well-known in the region, and it is likely that several descendants of Monacans still claim Cherokee rather than Monacan ancestry.
In 1988, the Monacan Tribe filed for incorporation as a non-profit organization, and were officially recognized as a tribe by the Commonwealth of Virginia the following year. In 2018, President Donald Trump signed a bill approved by both houses of Congress granting federal recognition.
After years of living as individuals rather than tribal members, the Monacan people consulted with scientists and academics to reconstruct the traditions and culture of their ancestors, a process that is continuing.
It is known that the Monacan Nation honored its ancestors with burial mounds. Of the thirteen mounds that remain and have been identified, some are more than eight feet tall and forty feet in diameter, containing the remains of more than a thousand individuals.
This suggests that the Monacans were a settled community, practicing agriculture. While they were hunter-gatherers, they also gardened, growing pumpkins, squash, corn, beans, gourds, and sunflowers, and cultivating persimmons, grapes, plums, and mulberries. They gathered hickory nuts, black walnuts, and white oak acorns, and hunted deer and various birds. Prior to 1700, Monacans lived in oval-shaped pole and thatch homes, which were permanent structures, while they also established temporary villages in seasonal hunting areas.
Recommended Resources
The Monacan Indian Nation is one of eleven American Indian tribes recognized by the Commonwealth of Virginia since the late 20th century. It is also federally recognized. The tribal website presents a brief introduction to the tribe, as well as the location of the tribal office, hours of operation, and contact data. Tribal citizenship and the enrollment policies of the tribe are outlined, and tribal services and programs are identified. The Monacan Indian Nation Museum is highlighted.
https://www.monacannation.com/
Monacan Millennium: A Collaborative Archaeology and History of a Virginia Indian People
Written by Jeffrey L. Hantman, and published by the University of Virginia Press in 2018, the book is written from an anthropological perspective and informed by ethnohistory, archaeology, and indigenous tribal perspectives, viewing the Chesapeake's early colonial period from a Monacan perspective. The book may be purchased in printed form or downloaded free in PDF format, available through Project Muse, a collaboration between John Hopkins University Press and the Milton S. Eisenhower Library.
https://muse.jhu.edu/book/60757
Monacan Nation Cultural Foundation
The Foundation serves the Monacan Nation and educates the public about Monacan culture. It operates a tribal museum, hosts various cultural events, and operates a food bank to support families and individuals in need. The Foundation also provides services to educate youth about Monacan culture, attempts to meet other needs of the Monacan Nation and its community, and focuses on spreading awareness about Native American culture, history, and education. An event calendar and contacts are posted.
https://www.minculturalfoundation.org/
TAC: The Story of the Monacan People
TAC is a streaming media website supported by the Archaeological Legacy Institute, a non-profit organization dedicated to nurturing and bringing attention to the human cultural heritage. This video production features the story of the Monacan people, from pre-history to the present time. Produced and edited by Sharon Bryant, a member of the Monacan Indian Nation, the documentary discusses Monacan traditions, contact with English settlers, and the tribe's disenfranchisement.
https://www.archaeologychannel.org/video-guide/video-guide-menu/video-guide-summary/185-reclaiming-our-heritage-the-monacan-indian-nation-of-virginia
The Land Speaks: The Monacan Nation and Politics of Memory
Hosted by the University Libraries at Virginia Tech, this site presents the history and a profile of the Monacan people and the Monacan Nation, including maps showing the locations of the tribe's traditional principal villages, photographs, and other illustrations. A video elaborates on the tribe's traditional mound-building burial practices, and another discusses traditional Monacan homes, using a model. An audio interview with Phyllis Hicks is included.
https://exhibits.lib.vt.edu/the-land-speaks/
